Contex and Principles for Early Year Learning Essay

Question: An explanation of the legal status and principle of the relevant Early Years Framework and why the early year frameworks emphasise a personal and individual approach to learning and development 1. 1 The statutory framework for the EYFS sets out the legal requirements relating to learning and development and the legal requirements relating to welfare. The EYFS framework has statutory force by virtue of Section 44 of the Childcare Act 2006. The EYFS is a central part of the ten year childcare strategy Choice for parents, the best start for children and the landmark Childcare Act 2006. This Act, which regulates the childcare in England, formalise the important strategic role local authorities play, through a set of duties. These duties require authorities to †¢ work with their NHS and Jobcentre Plus partners to improve the outcomes of all children up to five years of age and reduce inequalities between them †¢ secure sufficient childcare for working parents †¢ provide a parental information service †¢ provide information, advice and training for childcare providers. The act also lays out registration and inspection arrangements, providing for an integrated education and care framework for the Early Years and general childcare registers. The sufficiency, information and outcomes duties came into effect on 1 April 2008 and the remaining provisions came into effect from September 2008. The revised, simpler framework for the EYFS was published on 27 March 2012, for implementation from 1 September 2012. This is an integral part of the Government’s wider vision for families in the foundation years. It demonstrates our commitment to freeing professionals from bureaucracy to focus on supporting children. Together with a more flexible, free early education entitlement and new streamlined inspection arrangements, this is a step towards a lighter touch regulatory regime. The Government will continue to seek to reduce burdens and remove unnecessary regulation and paperwork, which undermine professionals’ ability to protect children and promote their development. The new EYFS framework makes a number of improvements: †¢ Reducing bureaucracy for professionals, simplifying the statutory assessment of children’s development at age five. †¢ Simplifying the learning and development requirements by reducing the number of early learning goals from 69 to 17. †¢ Stronger emphasis on the three prime areas which are most essential for children’s healthy development. These three areas are: communication and language; physical; and personal, social and emotional development. †¢ For parents, a new progress check at age two on their child’s development. This links with the Healthy Child review carried out by health visitors, so that children get any additional support they need before they start school. †¢ Strengthening partnerships between professionals and parents, ensuring that the new framework uses clear language. The Early Years Register (EYR) and the General Childcare Register (GCR) provide a regulatory framework for childcare under the act. Ofsted regulates the two registers – the EYR for people caring for children aged from birth to 31 August after their fifth birthday and the GCR for childcare over this age. The GCR has two parts: the compulsory part (for providers of childcare for children aged five to seven) and a voluntary part (for providers of childcare for children aged eight and over or childcare that is exempt from registering on a compulsory basis). The EYFS has replaced three precedent frameworks: Curriculum Guidance for Foundation Stage, the Birth to Three Matters frameworks, and the National Standards for Under 8s Day-care and Childminding. The EYFS is given legal force through an Order and Regulations made under the Act. From September 2008 it will be mandatory for all schools and early years providers in Ofsted registered settings attended by young children – that is children from birth to the end of the academic year in which a child has their fifth birthday. All early years providers are required to meet the EYFS requirements. From September 2008 it is the legal responsibility of these providers to ensure that their provision meets the learning and development requirements, and complies with the welfare regulations. The Early Years Foundation Stage 2012 (EYFS) sets the standards that all early years providers must meet to ensure that children learn and develop well and are kept healthy and safe. It promotes teaching and learning to ensure children’s ‘school readiness’ and gives children the broad range of knowledge and skills that provide the right foundation for good future progress through school and life. Every child deserves the best possible start in life and the support that enables them to fulfil their potential. Children develop quickly in the early years and a child’s experiences between birth and age five have a major impact on their future life chances. A secure, safe and happy childhood is important in its own right. Good parenting and high quality early learning together provide the foundation children need to make the most of their abilities and talents as they grow up. The EYFS seeks to provide: †¢ quality and consistency in all early years settings, so that every child makes good progress and no child gets left behind; †¢ a secure foundation through learning and development opportunities which are planned around the needs and interests of each individual child and are assessed and reviewed regularly; †¢ partnership working between practitioners and with parents and/or carers; †¢ equality of opportunity and anti-discriminatory practice, ensuring that every child is included and supported. The EYFS specifies requirements for learning and development and for safeguarding children and promoting their welfare. The learning and development requirements cover: †¢ the areas of learning and development which must shape activities and experiences (educational programmes) for children in all early years settings; †¢ the early learning goals that providers must help children work towards (the knowledge, skills and understanding children should have at the end of the academic year in which they turn five); and †¢ assessment arrangements for measuring progress (and requirements for reporting to parents and/or carers). The safeguarding and welfare requirements cover the steps that providers must take to keep children safe and promote their welfare. Four guiding principles should shape practice in early years settings. These are: †¢ every child is a unique child, who is constantly learning and can be resilient, capable, confident and self-assured; †¢ children learn to be strong and independent through positive relationships; †¢ children learn and develop well in enabling environments, in which their experiences respond to their individual needs and there is a strong partnership between practitioners and parents and/or carers; and †¢ children develop and learn in different ways and at different rates. The framework covers the education and care of all children in early years provision, including children with special educational needs and disabilities. The aim of the EYFS is to help young children achieve the five Every Child Matters outcomes of staying safe, being healthy, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution, and achieving economic well-being by: 1. setting the standards for the learning, development and care, ensuring that every child makes progress and that no child gets left behind. Parents, providers should deliver individualised learning, development and care that enhances the development of the children in their care and gives those children the best possible start in life. Every child should be supported individually to make progress at their own pace and children who need extra support to fulfil their potential should receive special consideration. All providers have an equally important role to play in children’s early years experiences and they have to ensure that the provision they deliver is both appropriate to children’ needs and complementary to the education and care provided in child’s other settings. 2. providing for equality of opportunity and anti-discriminatory practice and ensuring that every child is included and not disadvantaged because of ethnicity, culture or religion, home language, family background, learning difficulties or disabilities, gender or ability. Practitioners should focus on each child’s individual learning, development and care needs by: removing or helping to overcome barriers for children, being alert to the early signs of needs that could lead to later difficulties and responding quickly and appropriately, stretching and challenging children because all of them should have the opportunity to experience an enjoyable programme of learning and development. 3. creating the framework for partnership working between parents and professionals, and between all the settings that the child attends. Working with children means working in partnership with a lot of people, for this reason is important that practitioners ensure continuity and coherence by sharing relevant information with each other and with parents. Parents and families are central to a child’s well-being and learning’s needs. For this reason practitioners should support this important relationship by sharing information and offering support for extending learning in the home. 4. improving quality and consistency in the early years sector through a universal set of standards which apply to all settings and providing the basis for the inspection and regulation regime. 5. laying a secure foundation for future learning through learning and development that is planned around the individual needs and interests of the child, and informed by the use of ongoing observational assessment. It is important to their future success that children’ earliest experience help to build a secure foundation for learning throughout their school years and beyond. Practitioners must sensitive to the individual development of each child to ensure that activities they undertake are suitable for the stage that they have reached. Children need to be stretched, but not pushed beyond their capabilities, so that they can continue enjoy learning. Practitioners must observe assessment planning for each child’s continuing development through play-based activities, and respond quickly to children’s learning and development needs. There are a lot of important aspects on the early years’ provision in the EYFS framework. These principles are: 1. There should be a variety of provision for children under five in any locality. 2. All groups should operate in safe, healthy premises and should register with the local social services department. 3. Groups should be of manageable size and have a high adult to child ratio. 4. Groups should comply with al employment legislation and pay adequate salaries and expenses to volunteers. 5. Staff should be trained and experienced, and with volunteers and parents, should be given the opportunity to further their learning. 6. Groups should have opening times that reflect the needs of parents and children. 7. Groups should have clear policies and procedures for admission and attendance of children 8. Groups should consider children’s dietary needs to ensure that any food or drink provided is appropriate, acceptable and nutritious. In the provision of any refreshment, groups should respect individual, cultural, religious and medical requirements. 9. Groups should have appropriate and adequate insurance cover. 10. Parents are the main educators of their children and should be involved in all aspects of the group including management. 11. Groups should have sound management procedures. 12. Groups should be recognised by, and have contact with, other local providers of education and care for young children. 13. Groups should provide for children and adults with disabilities and learning difficulties including â€Å"children in need† as defined by the Children Act 1989. 14. Groups should be well organised, with carefully planned activities. 15. Groups should provide good quality educational equipment and play activities appropriate ages and stages of development. 16. The quality in any group is ultimately dependent upon the skills, attitudes and commitment of adults, and groups should build upon these. 17. There should be equal opportunities, in all aspects of the group’s work, for adults and children. All children in England between ages 5 and 16 must receive a full-time education. For children under age 5, publicly-funded nurseries and pre-schools are available for a limited number of hours each week. After the age of 16, students can attend sixth form colleges or other further education institutions. There are different types of child settings but all of them should follow The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 that sets out two main duties for childcare providers: †¢ not to treat a disabled child ‘less favourably’ †¢ to make ‘reasonable adjustments’ for disabled children Registered day nurseries Children are normally admitted from age 18 months to 3? years. They usually have fixed opening times and are usually open all day and during the school holidays to meet the needs of working parents. They may also offer before and after school childcare and holiday care for school aged children. Local authority nursery schools and nursery classes They are funded by the local authority. Children can start a nursery school or nursery class attached to a primary school from the age of three. Some nursery places are for a half-day (either a morning or an afternoon), others are for the whole school day. Pre-schools and Playgroups Pre-schools and playgroups provide care, play and learning opportunities for children aged two to five years. They usually offer half day sessions, term time only, although some may offer extended hours. Primary school Primary schools are for children aged from four or five until the age of 11. Secondary school Secondary schools are for children aged 11, until the age of 16 but often also include sixth form centres or colleges which have pupils until the age of 18. Special schools Special schools educate children or young people aged 5 and upwards almost always with statements of special educational need. Childminders Provide care, play and learning opportunities within the childminders own home. They may be able to work flexible hours and periods. Will often take or collect children from playgroup or school. Can care for a maximum of six children under 8 years of age, depending on the play space available, but no more than three under 5 years of age and not normally more than one under 12 months Question: An explanation of how national and local guidance materials are used in setting 1. 2 UK’s current provision to work with early years children has been influenced by many different theories. FRIEDRICH FROEBEL (1782-1852) Froebel founded his first kindergarten in 1840. He believed in outdoor and indoor play and invented finger play, songs and rhymes. He valued symbolic behaviour through play: this is where children understand that they can make one thing stand for – or symbolise – something else – for example, a yoghurt pot can symbolise a cup of tea. He felt that children were able to learn at their highest level through imaginative play. He was also well known for encouraging block play which he called gift – encouraging children to understand a variety of mathematical concepts and relationship through play with various wooden blocks. His theory start with the concept that humans are creative beings, for this reason true education must help children to understand their true nature as creative beings. Froebel believed that play is the engine that drives true learning. Play is not idle behaviour. It is a biological imperative to discover how things work. It is happy work, but definitely purposeful. Froebel sought to harness this impulse and focus the child’s play energy on specific activities designed to lead them to create meaning from this experience. In his opinion children can only learn what they are ready to learn. Each child is unique and develops according to their own schedule. Nothing can be more wasteful or frustrating than to try to force a child to march to a different beat. Froebel works with each child’s own rhythm but makes it purposeful and guides the child toward the group. Froebel recognized that you cannot control the child so he controlled everything else. A prepared environment provides the teacher with the proper tools and gives children the experiences that the teacher feels are most beneficial, leading the child’s mind to the subject at hand. It feels less structured or forced, but it is actually extremely efficient. After his death the idea of his child-centred kindergarten became popular in both Germany and the rest of Europe. MARIA MONTESSORI (1870-1952) Maria Montessori was a doctor in poor areas of Rome in the early twentieth century. During this time she observed children’s development and saw them as active learners. She did not believe in imaginative play but she felt that children needed to experience concepts such as shape, size and order through structured play. She also felt that, at different stages of their development, children are particularly receptive to certain area of learning and that the adult must guide them through these. Montessori believed that children would become independent learners if they worked on their own. She did not encourage sequence of exercises often using specifically designed didactic (instructional) materials. (Penny Tassoni, 368)These are materials that involve sensory experiences and are self-correcting. Montessori materials are designed to be aesthetically pleasing, yet sturdy and were developed by Maria Montessori to help children develop organization. Montessori believed that the environment should be prepared by matching the child to the corresponding didactic material. The environment should be comfortable for children (e. g., child-sized chairs that are lightweight). The environment should be homelike, so child can learn practical life issues. For example, there should be a place for children to practice proper self-help skills, such as hand washing. Since Montessori believed beauty helped with concentration, the setting is aesthetically pleasing. The â€Å"Montessori method† consists in a carefully developed set of materials which create the proper environment for children at each stage of their development. In this environment and with the guidance of trained teachers, they can develop their intellects and acquire all the skills and content of human civilization. Over sixty years of experience with children around the world proved Dr. Montessori’s theory that children can learn to read, write and calculate as easily and naturally as they learn to walk and talk. Her methods are still popular in Montessori schools around the world. The High/Scope approach The High/Scope Approach has roots in constructivist theory. Constructivists believe that we learn by mentally and physically interacting with the environment and with others. Although errors may be made during these interactions, they are considered just another part of the learning process. Although both Constructivism and the Montessori Method involve learning by doing, there are significant differences. In Montessori, for instance, the didactic, self-correcting materials are specifically designed to help prevent errors. Children learn by repetition, instead of by trial and error. The role of pretend play is also different in the two methods. In High/Scope, children’s creative exploration is encouraged, and this sometimes leads to pretend play, while in Montessori, â€Å"practical life work† that relates to the real world is stressed. Although Constructivism is a theory of learning, as opposed to a theory of teaching, High/Scope has exemplified an approach of teaching that supports Constructivist beliefs. Thus, children learn through active involvement with people, materials, events, and ideas. What Are High/Scope’s Main Components? Social †¢ One of the fundamental points in the High/Scope approach is that children are encouraged to be active in their learning through supportive adult interactions. †¢ The High/Scope approach includes times for various grouping experiences in the classroom. There are specific periods in each day for small group times, large group times, and for children to play independently in learning centres throughout the classroom. †¢ Children are encouraged to share their thinking with teachers and peers. †¢ Social interactions in the classroom community are encouraged. Teachers facilitate work on problem resolution with children as conflicts arise. †¢ When a child talks, the teachers listen and ask open-ended questions; they seek to ask questions that encourage children to express their thoughts and be creative rather than a â€Å"closed† question that would elicit more of a yes/no or simplistic answer. †¢ Each day the High/Scope teacher observes and records what the children are doing. During the year, teachers complete a High/Scope Child Observation Record from the daily observations they have collected. Curriculum †¢ â€Å"Key experiences† were designed specifically for this approach. The following is a brief summary of key experiences taken from Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren (1999, p. 32). The key experiences for preschool children are: -Creative representation -Classification -Language and literacy -Seriation -Initiative and social relation -Number -Movement -Space -Music -Time. †¢ â€Å"Plan-do-review† is another major component of the High/Scope framework. Children are encouraged to: 1) plan the area, materials, and methods they are going to work with; 2) do, actually carry out their plan; and 3) review, articulate with the class-room community what they actually did during work time. The review time helps children bring closure to their work and link their actual work to their plan. †¢ Cleanup time is a natural part of plan-do-review. Children are given a sense of control by cleaning up. Representative labels help children return materials to appropriate places (Roopnarine & Johnson, 1993). †¢ The High/Scope classroom has a consistent routine. The purpose of the resulting predictability is to help children understand what will happen next and encourage them to have more control in their classroom. Environmental Set-Up †¢ The High/Scope ® classroom is a materials-rich learning environment. Usually, the locations for classroom materials are labelled to help children learn organizational skills. †¢ Materials are set-up so that they are easily accessible at a child’s level. This helps facilitate children’s active exploration. †¢ Teachers set up the classroom areas purposefully for children to explore and build social relationships, often with well-defined areas for different activities. Reggio Emilia Approach Reggio Emilia is a small town of northern Italy. The approach has become so popular in the early childhood field because it offers many unique curriculum ideas, because of the strong infrastructure for the Reggio schools, and because of the attention to co-construction. What Are the Reggio Emilia Approach’s Main Components? Social †¢ Cooperation and collaboration are terms that stress the value of revisiting social learning. First, children must become members of a community that is working together (cooperation). Once there is a foundation of trust between the children and adults, constructive conflict may be helpful in gaining new insights (collaboration). †¢ Co-construction refers to the fact that the meaning of an experience often is built in a social context. †¢ An atelierista is a teacher who has a special training that supports the curriculum development of the children and other faculty members. There is an atelierista in each of the Reggio Emilia pre-primary schools. †¢ Pedagogistas are built in as part of the carefully planned support system of the Reggio Emilia schools. The word pedagogista is difficult to translate into English. They are educational consultants that strive to implement the philosophy of the system and advocate for seeing children as the competent and capable people they are. They also make critical connections between families, schools, and community. Curriculum †¢ One of the special features of the Reggio Emilia approach is called â€Å"documentation. † Documentation is a sophisticated approach to purposefully using the environment to explain the history of projects and the school community. It does not simply refer to the beautiful classroom artwork commonly found throughout schools following Reggio Emilia Approach. And, even though it often incorporates concrete examples of both the processes and products that are part of a child’s education, it is more than just that. It is a fundamental way of building connections. Documentation is discussed in more detail in the next section that describes the uniqueness of the Reggio Emilia Approach. †¢ Co-construction increases the level of knowledge being developed. This occurs when active learning happens in conjunction with working with others (e. g.having opportunities for work to be discussed, questioned, and explored). Having to explain ideas to someone else clarifies these ideas. In addition, conflicts and questions facilitate more connections and extensions. There is an opportunity to bring in different expertise. Thus, to facilitate co-construction, teachers need to â€Å"aggressively listen† and foster collaboration between all the members of the community whenever possible. Real learning takes place when they check, evaluate, and then possibly add to each other’s work. †¢ Long-term projects are studies that encompass the explorations of teachers and children. †¢ Flowcharts are an organized system of recording curriculum planning and assessment based on ongoing collaboration and careful review. †¢ Portfolios are a collection of a child’s work that demonstrates the child’s efforts, progress, and achievements over time. Environmental Set-Up †¢ In Reggio Emilia, the environment is similar to that found in Montessori schools. However, the environmental set-up as a â€Å"third teacher† has been enhanced and extended in the Reggio Emilia approach. †¢ Like Montessori, it is believed beauty helps with concentration; the setting is aesthetically pleasing. †¢ Reggio Emilia schools create homelike environments. In Reggio, the homelike atmosphere is designed to help make children feel comfortable and learn practical life issues. †¢ Each child is provided a place to keep her own belongings. †¢ Documentation is a major part of the environmental set-up. Documentation illustrates both the process and the product. In documentation, the child is seen as an individual but also in relation to a group, with various possibilities for the individual. Question: An explanation of how different approaches to work with children in early years have affected current provision. 1. 3 Early years frameworks emphasize a personal and individual approach to learning and development because every child is unique and they develop and learn in different ways and at different rates, for this reason all areas of learning and development are equally important and inter-connected. Another reason is that experiences during the early years strongly influence a child’s future development. This means that the care and education that babies and young children receive to support their growth, development and learning must be of high quality and appropriate to their individual needs. Therefore, all practitioners should look carefully at the children in their care, consider their needs, their interests, and their stage of development and use all this information to help plan a challenging and enjoyable experience across all the areas of learning and development. In fact EYFS’s aim is to reflect the rich and personalised experience that many parents give their children at home. Like parents, providers should deliver individualised learning, development and care that enhances the development of the children in their care and gives those children the best possible start in life. Every child should be supported individually to make progress at their own pace and children who need extra support to fulfil their potential should receive special consideration. All providers have an equally important role to play in children’s early years experiences and they have to ensure that the provision they deliver is both appropriate to children’ needs. Question: An explanation of the Partnership model of working with carers 3. 1 Working with children means have a lot of responsibilities and one of the main ones is to have a positive partnership within the child setting’s staff and parents/carers. For this reason every child setting has its own policy to regulate relations between carers and carers and families. Positive partnership calls for: †¢ mutual respect and trust †¢ a recognition of equality between parents and professionals †¢ awareness of cultural and ethnic diversity †¢ partners to share information and skills. This means that good communication is essential to working with children, young people, families and carers. It helps build trust, and encourages them to seek advice and use services. It is key to establishing and maintaining relationships, and is an active process that involves listening, questioning, understanding and responding. †¢ an acknowledgement and sharing of feelings †¢ all parties to play a role in the decision making process. Question: A review of the Potential barriers to participation for carers, and an explanations of how these barriers may be overcome 3. 2 Barriers to partnership working There are many potential barriers to establishing a working partnership with parents, which can apply to both parties. Here are some of them: Time and availability. †¢ Finding a mutually convenient time and venue to meet †¢ Other demands from family and work †¢ Access and transport for some parents Language, culture and religion Cultural and/or religious attitudes towards disability †¢ Language barriers (there are no words for Down’s syndrome in Punjabi or Urdu) †¢ What is culturally acceptable Parents own education †¢ Negative feelings towards school and authority †¢ Feelings of inadequacy †¢ Fear of being judged Communication †¢ Poor communication channels (e. g. through the child only) †¢ Poor information sharing (what does go on in school? ) †¢ Automatic use of jargon. †¢ Shyness †¢ Lack of confidence School and staff †¢ Personal relationships between teacher and parent †¢ Limited facilities for meeting with parents †¢ Lack of empathy with the role of parent †¢ Lack of staff skills and confidence †¢ Access to relevant information †¢ An unwelcoming environment Parent and school †¢ Who to talk to? †¢ Lack of acceptance or awareness of child’s difficulties †¢ The value placed on education †¢ Young people not wanting parents involved †¢ Lack of information around transition periods (from one school to the next) †¢ Disinterest/lack of clear responsibility. †¢ Lack of consensus between parents Previous experience †¢ Negative previous experience †¢ Feelings of being judged †¢ Lack of action or follow up †¢ Being patronised Some ideas for overcoming barriers Communication †¢ Use regular newsletters to improve information flow †¢ Have a central information point e. g. regularly updated notice board †¢ Have a central contact point †¢ Exploit technology – web sites, email, blogs, text messaging †¢ Provide up to date information and a jargon buster. Create regular meeting slots †¢ Create opportunities for informal as well as formal contact e.g. parents assemblies, social events †¢ Collect parents views e. g. suggestion box, parent forum, parents’ spokesperson †¢ Involve parents in school activities †¢ Use home/school books and diaries †¢ Use email or phone if there is sensitivity about keeping a written record School and staff †¢ Develop staff skills in communication and listening †¢ Increase availability of staff and head teacher e. g. regular meeting slots, surgery times for 1-1 meetings †¢ Improve the range of activities in which parents can participate †¢ Make direct personal contact with parents †¢ Provide creche.

Symbolism in the Road

In McCarthy’s book, The Road, McCarthy is able to illustrate not only the setting of the book, but feelings, expressions, and actions, by various literary devices. Although he brought into play several devices such as: imagery, tone, metaphors, and a couple of similes, the most significant would have to be symbolism. Symbolism is when the author uses an object or reference to add deeper meaning to a story. The author may constantly use the same object to express deeper meaning. Symbolism is also often used to support a literary theme in a subtle manner, which in this case is what McCarthy did. An example of symbolism, and the most noteworthy would have to be the road. Just like that, the plain road. McCarthy refers to the road on several instances, thus making it imperative to the novel. The road symbolizes hope, as well as courage. The road means that for them it is the only hope of surviving. Hope that when they get to the end of that road they will be safe in a safe place. It also represents courage because they have the bravery of going on without knowing anything about the road, courage of going into the unknown. Not knowing what awaits them. Another example of symbolism is when the man tells the boy that he they are the only ones carrying the fire. In this quote the man refers to fire as being a symbol of them being the only ones left who have feelings in the world, who have a conscience, who still hold true to things that make us human, like empathy, hope, love and the will to survive without sacrificing your beliefs, things other people in this new world have lost. Compared to the others, â€Å"the bad guys,† The man and his son don’t kill, they don’t steal from the living, they help where it’s possible to do so, and, most importantly in the novel’s symbolism, they don’t eat other people, which can differ you from â€Å"good† and â€Å"bad. † Another example of symbolism is the mirror. The man and the boy went into a house and as they turned around a corner there was a mirror, and as the man saw his reflection he instantly reached for his gun, thinking it was someone else. In this case the mirror symbolizes what the man has turned into. It represents and supports the theme of survival present trough out the novel, what they have to be in order to survive in this new world. In another scene the man and the boy come across a river, which symbolizes after death, or the gateway to the afterlife. This symbol goes in hand with the quote â€Å"the grass is greener on the other side,† it is like if they are on the wrong side of it, like if they go to the other side everything would be better, and prettier. Therefore, the sea stands for the other life, the one you get when you’re dead, which in the case of the man and the boy would be best for them since the life they are â€Å"walking dead,† they are living a pitiable life. The boy himself is also a form of symbolism. The boy exemplifies innocence; he demonstrates that there still is purity in the world. He is always looking for the goodness of people. Throughout the novel they run into different people, he always wanted them to come along with his dad and him, and he was always willing to help them no matter if they are â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad. In a certain time the boy is willing to sacrifice himself to help the man they ran into. He was willing to give him his food and not eat himself so the man could eat. A further example that goes hand-in-hand with the boy’s innocence would be his kindness. In this case kindness stands for his vulnerability. Since in McCarthy’s post-apocalyptic world, the line between kindness and vulnerability is very fine. Thanks to his father though, the boy survives, and keeps focused. His father serves as a realistic intermediary between the boy and ideal goodness. The boy’s hair being described as a â€Å"golden chalice,† stands for the boy sometimes being like a divine child who can inspire the man to goodness. The â€Å"golden chalice† makes the boy seem angelical. The boy's gentle nature provides us, readers, with hope for the future. Though he has only known this wild, post-apocalyptic world, he's still full of kindness and innocence. Speaking of the boy another symbol about him is the â€Å"yellow truck†. This â€Å"yellow truck† represented the boy’s youth, and his childhood, despite the fact that they live in a world where he could not be a child. In this world he was not able to live his infancy like any other child, and when he played with this truck, it was like if one saw another side of him, like if we were able to see the child that lives within him. Cannibalism is another form of symbolism that represents what the world has come to, what mankind has turned into. It symbolizes the end of civilization, and that eventually there will be no human in this â€Å"new world† due to it. Cannibalism also forms a major part of the novel since it can differentiate the man, and the boy from the â€Å"good,† or â€Å"bad† guys. However, when you are living in a world like the one in the novel, if you are a cannibal is it being a â€Å"bad guy,† or is it you’re survival instincts coming into play? Does it make you a bad person to want to live? Due to symbolism along with the help of other literary elements McCarthy brings to life a world that no one else could have ever imagined possible. There are so many books and films that try to portray the end of the world, but no other has done so as Cormac McCarthy has.

Poverty Case Essay

Question: Choose an issue of importance to you—the issue could be personal, school related, local, political, or international in scope—and write an essay in which you explain the significance of that issue to yourself, your family, your community, or your generation. My parents had a life where there were no three meals a day, no electricity and so many other things. They used to tell â€Å"you never know how bad poverty is until you experience it†. Poverty is the leading cause of death in every developing county. We all know about poverty but we do nothing to stop it. According to UNICF more than 22000 kids die every day because of poverty. The food that we waste everyday will be enough to remove world poverty. My parents and grandparents came from world of utter poverty. When I talk about poverty I know how bad it is and I want the new generation to everything they can to remove poverty. Have anyone gone hungry for a day or two? We all eat at least three meals a day but there are people in the world who don’t even have a single piece of bread to eat. Mahatma Gandhi once said â€Å"there are people in the world, so hungry that god cannot appear to them except in the form of bread.† We all are living in a country where we have everything but there are people in the world who have to drink dirty water to slake their thirst. In Africa more than 5000 kids die each day because of drinking dirty water. We all know about this but we do nothing to stop world poverty. Remember that today’s kids are tomorrow’s future. If we put the all the billionaires in the world together they may be able to remove world poverty from this world. According to human nature if we want to do something we have the ability to do it but no one is there to take the lead. As a 17 year old teenager I care about my fellow citizens and the coming generation. I don’t want them to see a world of poverty and death. I want them to see a world of evergreen sunshine. Poverty is not something that we can remove in two or three days. It takes time to remove world poverty. As a member of the new generation let’s all make sure that we show our kids that we are living in a country with no poverty.

Corrections and Rehabilitation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Corrections and Rehabilitation - Research Paper Example In the early days these were the unwritten rules of those particular societies but all of them had a few characteristics in common like stealing, cheating, murder, embezzlement etc. were considered bad in all the societies. Today, almost all the nations have their own sets of rules that are termed as ‘laws’. Not abiding by the written or given laws is considered a deviance and termed as crime. Looking through history, we find that imprisoning was not a punishment in itself but it is a relatively new idea. Prisons were first used to keep criminals until the time of their execution. It was also used to detain debtors until they made their payments. The modern prison system was born in London in the 1860`s that prisons as known today become commonplace. Imprisoning the criminals is not the ultimate solution. They will eventually be released from prisons and will have to rehabilitate in the society. The important factor is how to re-establish them into the normal stream of t he society. It is not in the nature of humans to commit crimes but they due to different circumstances are forced to commit crimes. There is no unlimited resource of confining the criminals in penitentiaries for an unlimited period and it is against the basic human rights. Therefore, correcting and rehabilitating the criminals is of the same, if not more, importance than imprisoning them. (History, 2012) This concept is evolving to make our society a better and safe place. It is of extreme importance to the government as running prisons has a great cost. If the prisoners can be managed and rehabilitated in the society smoothly, the tax payer`s money can be put to better use. Realizing the significance of this issue the government has established many state run rehabilitation and correction centers like the Florida Department of Corrections (Florida Department of Corrections, 2012). Reducing recidivism also has a direct impact on society as a whole as the criminals are a part of the society. According to a research, religious activities, religious talks, vocational talks and strong family bondages have a positive effect on reducing recidivism (Che Din). LITERARTURE RIVIEW Since the evolution of the modern criminal justice system, there has been a debate as to how to convert the law breakers into law abiding citizens. That is in effect a discussion as to how to rehabilitate them into the society. It has been argued that there is a cost of ignoring rehabilitation to the effect that there is no concrete evidence that correctional programs either decrease recidivism or generate any other optimistic gains for offenders. However, in contrast to this an argument has been raised that rehabilitation programs have remedial effect on the criminals and has helped many in settling back into the society. A survey carried out has demonstrated that the public supports a correctional system that is both punitive and rehabilitating. To conclude rehabilitation in a wider perspect ive is a better course to follow (Cullen, 2000). The Florida Department of Corrections (Florida DC) is the third largest state prison system in the USA. In its mission statement, it is stated that Florida DC exists to protect public safety and to provide proper care and supervision of all the offenders under its jurisdiction providing them with all the assistance to help them re-enter into the society.

Plato's Timaeus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plato's Timaeus - Essay Example 8). Moreover, it is â€Å"apprehended by understanding rather than senses. According to Platos cosmology, â€Å"the cosmos is the physical world†. Everything will come and pass away and supported by the opinion and perception of sense. Plato describes Cosmos that it became into being and was created with world of forms model, â€Å"The cosmos itself came into being, created using as its model the world of Forms. â€Å"Plato, in naming the Kosmos generation, he was simply trying to bring the fact that the account has less representation of faith in likeness known as the â€Å"likeness of an eternal model" (Plato & Donald, p 7-p. 8). In general, it means that the account is actually not probabilistic. Plato also describes the Cosmos as a living being simply because the Cosmos is based on a living being. Moreover, it is unique as it has souls and spherical shape due to its perfect and beautiful shape. Various presocratic philosophers also support Plato’s Cosmos nature and composition they include Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaxagoras as well as Philolaus. The relationship between Plato’s and these dialogues from other philosophers has led to the rise of acrimonious and fruitful debate. Heraclitus also tried to examine the Cosmos and its nature, which made him offer a cosmological account concerning the nature of the physical world. He proceeds deeper than the Plato in inquiring and investigating the physical nature of the world (Plato & Donald, p 6-p. 8 ). Being one of the Presocratic philosophers, he further supports the nature of the world as containing an enormous variety of objects that will be, and have always been present. He claims, â€Å"all things on earth simply came from a common source or any other kind of stuff. The statement â€Å"that which always is, is that which becomes† by Plato is in line with the Parmenides passage (B1.30, B8.32-41). Plato also describes that order in every way is always better

Organizational Behavior Analysis Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organizational Behavior Analysis - Term Paper Example If that is true, it is logical to say that no two organizations are the same either in behavior, culture or attitude. Organizational behavior plays a vital role in determining the success and failures of modern organizations. Globalization and liberalization have brought huge changes in organizations world. Modern organizations are working in a multicultural environment. Diverse workforce is common in most of the current organizations. Multicultural workforce would definitely have diverse communication means. Same way, strategies necessary to motivate a diverse workforce could be extremely different. Instead of intelligence quotient, emotional quotient of the employees appears to be more important in modern organizations. In short, new paradigms of OB are entering organizational world as time goes on. Apple Inc. is one of the prominent organizations in the world at present. They are the second largest in terms of market capitalization and also the most valuable technology company in the world at present. This paper analyses the importance of culture, communication, motivational techniques, emotional quotient and new paradigms in controlling the behavior of modern organizations, by taking Apple Inc. as the example. Culture As mentioned earlier, multiculturalism is not a myth, but a fact in modern organizations. ... When people from different cultures are working in the same organization, human resource managers may face lot of problems. The success of the organization lies in how well the HR managers solve such problems. For example, Muslims always like to have weekly off on Fridays whereas Christians like to have that on Sundays. These kind of contrasting interests or beliefs often cause problems to the HR managers. Even in the same culture, different subcultures often exist. For example, Roman Catholics and Protestants are two of the prominent communities in the Christian culture. Same way, Shia, Sunnis Kurds and Arabs are the subcultures in Islamic culture. The behavior, rituals, and customs of these subcultures are often different. â€Å"Some cultures put more emphasis on universal commitments (like honesty) while others put more weight on loyalty to particular people and relationships† (Ghemawat and Reiche, 2011, p.2). For example, people from some cultures are ready to tell even li es to save the interests of their companion. Such people places the value of relationships much above than anything else in this world. At the same time there are plenty of people who are not ready to tell lies even when their friends need their support badly. In short, modern organizations are operating based on the principles of pluralism and dualism and hence the salad bowl theory is extremely relevant to the modern organizations. As everybody knows, salad in a bowl consists of different vegetables and fruits. In other words, salads integrate the tastes of different vegetables and fruits and give eaters a unique taste. The taste of a salad is the sum total of the tastes of the individual components in it. It should be noted that the

Violence on Campus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Violence on Campus - Essay Example ming from any number of issues, leads to violence against others, significant steps are required on behalf of university policy-makers to combat the growing problem of violence on campus. This paper will describe campus violence, provide solutions for these problems from a sociological and psychological perspective, and also highlight difficulties with current anti-violence policies on todays campuses. Campus violence occurs when any variety of criminal activities transpire on the grounds of todays colleges and universities and includes, but is not limited to, petty theft, assault, rape, and even murder. Between 1995 and 2002, nearly 500,000 students between the ages of 18-24 experienced some form of campus violence (Acha.org, 2005). The most common types of violence occurring involved forced sexual intercourse and aggravated assault (Acha.org). The most alarming statistic suggests that only a small fraction of these criminal incidents are actually reported to police, which tends to infer that a much higher volume of students (other than reported statistics) are experiencing campus violence. Though campus violence is largely conducted by the college students themselves, school administrators and faculty, too, have been charged with rape and assault against other students and their peers, suggesting that campus violence is not isolated or linked specifically to student criminal behaviors. Why, though, does campus violence occur with such alarming frequency? Sociological perspectives on the issue tend to link violence with peer group acceptance. Henslin (2003) offers that college binge drinking, the activity of consuming massive amounts of alcohol over an extended period of time, is the primary catalyst for assault-related behaviors. As the majority of university students, today, maintain housing in local dormitories without parental supervision, student recreation related to constant alcohol consumption is both commonplace and deemed acceptable by a large

Do we learn more from work that follows or breaks with accepted Essay

Do we learn more from work that follows or breaks with accepted conventions - Essay Example There has been plenty of research, since the inception of human understanding of nature, on the methods of learning that are easy to follow as well as easy to teach. With the advancement in science and technology, there has been a lot of progress in every subject. As it follows from study, there are certain laws which govern every field of work. We assume certain conditions which can only be true if the mentioned laws of governance are satisfied, these are the rules, methods or practices established by usage i.e. a custom. Similarly, a convention is a set of agreed, stipulated or generally accepted social norms, norms, standards or criteria, often taking the form of a custom.The simple meaning of the title of this essay in simple terms is whether we learn more from having an advanced understanding of the subject made possible by following the results of an accepted convention (work that follows with accepted conventions) or we learn more from the failure of that convention which caus es us to consider the results from a different perspective (work that breaks with accepted conventions). However, before deciding on one of the choices, we should acknowledge the fact that no matter if the work follows or breaks with accepted conventions, our level of understanding or thinking is elevated to a higher level. In my opinion, we can learn more from the work if it breaks with the accepted conventions. There are many reasons for choosing this case ... However, if we do not get the results as determined by previous study and observations, we are forced to think of the peripheral (other minor variables included in the instructions) reasons that may lead to discrepancy of results. And as a result of this, we in simple words learn one way of not doing that experiment. And we can affirm this argument with a famous quote from a famous inventor, Sir Thomas A. Edison: I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work.[2] Now taking an example from arts, we can affirm the belief that we learn more from the works that break following accepted conventions. The example (more like a story) goes like this: Sigmund Freud was a medical man. After completing his M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) from Vienna University, he started working with a doctor, as an associate director, who was handling cases of hysteria at that time. At that time young man and woman were suffering from hysteria in large numbers. The main reason of the hysteria was sex problem. The doctor, with whom Sigmund Freud was working as an associate doctor, used to rely on medicines (which were not very successful). Sigmund Freud thought it was necessary to go into depth. He suggested this to this senior doctor who disagreed. Thereafter, Sigmund Freud dissociated with him and opened his own clinic for hysteria patients. He started questioning and counseling the patients and recorder their interviews. And finally Sigmund Freud succeeded in finding out the reasons of Author 3 hysteria. The reason was the emotional disturbance of the patients of both sexes. Freud then followed up the study with two books on that subject: Dora and Wolf.[1] This example also points our attention

Sustainability of Seafood Farms Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sustainability of Seafood Farms - Essay Example Today’s global economy has increasingly placed an emphasis on sustainability measures both as a means of improving the social environment and as a path towards cutting-edge innovative design. While sustainability has emerged in nearly all aspects of modern innovation, one of its prominent areas of influence is in the triple bottom line of fish farming. Triple bottom line has influenced sustainability through concerns with people, planets, and profits ecosystem ("Common terminology," 2009). In fish farming this approach has prominently been implemented through catching methods that do not harm the specific species long-term ability to reproduce or operate in a functional ecosystem ("Common terminology," 2009). Within this context of understanding there have emerged a plethora of methods wherein triple bottom-line approaches to sustainability has had strong impact on seafood farms. There are a number of concerns when investigating the sustainability approaches to fish farming. Among the most prominent overarching concerns are the notions of production, distribution, and consumption. Production refers to the amount of fish that can be acquired or ‘produced’ within a farming area during a specified period of time; this notion is important, as farmers must increasingly take sustainability measures into consideration or face continually diminishing production.

Computational Phylogenetic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Computational Phylogenetic - Essay Example Using the resulting â€Å"neighbor.outtree† generated as your answer in Question 2, generate the corresponding dendrogram using the â€Å"drawgram† program found at the MOBYLE Portal under phylogeny/display. Keep all program parameters set to default except for the â€Å"Drawgram options† parameter; you will need to change this parameter to a file type you can visualize on your computer (e.g., Windows – BitMap). Copy/Paste the resulting image as your answer. Using the resulting â€Å"dnapars.outtree† generated as your answer in Question 4, generate the corresponding dendrogram using the â€Å"drawtree† program found at the MOBYLE Portal under phylogeny/display. Keep all program parameters set to default except for the â€Å"Drawtree Options† parameter; you will need to change this parameter to a file type you can visualize on your computer (e.g., Windows – BitMap). Copy/Paste the resulting image as your answer. Run the â€Å"fitch† program found at the MOBYLE Portal under phylogeny/distance. Keep all program parameters set to default except for the parameter you will need to change to run â€Å"Minimum Evolution† instead of â€Å"Fitch-Margoliash†. Copy/Paste the resulting â€Å"fitch.outtree† as your answer. Using the resulting â€Å"fitch.outtree† generated as your answer in Question 6, generate the corresponding dendrogram using the â€Å"drawtree† program found at the MOBYLE Portal under phylogeny/display. Keep all program parameters set to default except for the â€Å"Drawtree Options† parameter; you will need to change this parameter to a file type you can visualize on your computer (e.g., Windows – BitMap). Copy/Paste the resulting image as your

Alexander of Macedon Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Alexander of Macedon - Research Paper Example Alexander as commander ensured excellent use of psychological war and propaganda, as it created a sense of revenge appealing to the Greeks. Despite the sources Alexander did win the battle which led him to continue his invasion of Persia. As for his troops, Alexander visited the wounded and received great respect from his men. Plutarch wrote of the capture of Darius’s family, and on much more on Alexander’s campaign. The action performed showed Alexander’s respect and nobility as a commander ignoring the reality that Darius was his enemy. Continuing on, he defeated Bessus, then moved on to India, and fought King Porus at the Hydaspes River in which once again was another victory. The truth that Alexander overpowered Darius, Bessus and King Porus in their own kingdoms reveals Alexander’s brilliance as an outstanding commander. [1] His mentality as commander was flexible and the concern he showed to his army led to few casualties in battles. When men died, A lexander showed compassion and honored the dead, and this led to Alexander having the great respect from his men. ... ccording to Bosworth â€Å"He loved them and they loved him as their king and as a man, and they could not bear to let him die without greeting him.† [2] This statement can assist in proving the ‘love’ aspect of his relationship as king with his men, and one must see this side of Alexander’s Kingship. In the determining of the rift at the Hydaspes River, after shedding tears and after listening to his men moaning outside his tent, Alexander assured them in these words which definitely consoled them then and there â€Å"but all of you regard as my kinsmen†. [3] In addition to this compassion, Alexander paid off his men’s debts off which totaled to 20,000 talents, a kind deed, and in the thirteen years of Alexander’s rule, he brought Macedon â€Å"immense wealth which maintained their strength for generations†. [4] The affiliation of Alexander as King towards his Macedones is wide-ranging. It is obvious that Alexander was an obsess ed king whose sufferings and implementations to Persian traditions created enormous annoyance and aggravation between his men towards him. There are more unconstructive perspectives in regard to Alexander’s successes as king, but in certain circumstances, we see the positives and affection Alexander and his men had for each other. As statesman, Alexander established his kingdom by using his skills as statesman. One of his first and most significant achievements as statesman was gaining the submission of Greece after the death of his father Philip. According to Hammond, when Alexander died he had 25 satrapies, which were ran by hundreds of influential senior officials from Asia and Europe. Of the Satrapies, most of the satraps (governor of satrapy) were Persian. Alexander kept these men in these powerful positions because they had the

Pob Sba Guide for Description of Business Essay Example for Free

Pob Sba Guide for Description of Business Essay Main Objective of doing this SBA To give you an opportunity to apply the knowledge gained in the study of Principles of Business. 1. 2. How will this be done? The objective will be fulfilled through the examination of a designated business/firm. The data collection instruments will be the questionnaire and the interview. The information gathered will then be analysed and evaluated, with the aim of drawing specific conclusions about the firm. Our staff consists of twenty employees four of who are supervisors of the factory and three administrative staff responsible for accounting, billing and wages. A Production Manager is in charge of all production processes and the supervisors report to him. There is a Quality Control Supervisor who reports directly to the partners. An Inventory Manager is in charge of receiving, storage and issuance of raw materials as well as receipt, storage and distribution of the finished products with a staff of three assistants to help him. The functional areas of the business will include Purchasing/Logistics, Inventory Management, Production, Distribution and

Maintenance And Redevelopment Of Aged Public Housing Estate Construction Essay

Maintenance And Redevelopment Of Aged Public Housing Estate Construction Essay Since the fire in Shek Kip Mei on 25 December 1953 that made 53,000 people homeless, due to the shantytowns of the China immigrants were destroyed. As the population growth of Hong Kong is very fast from the five decades ago due to the immigrants and birthrate. At present, Hong Kong Government is facing the problem of density populated. For this reason, Hong Kong Government assigns Hong Kong Housing Authority to develop public housing program of multi story building for immigrants to living there. Therefore, Hong Kong Housing Authority has been turn into the biggest public housing developer and the single proprietor in Hong Kong. Nevertheless, the housing condition and the practicability is the important consideration of the district, because the main concept of public housing is satisfy the basic and real need of townspeople, who cannot afford the private housing requirement. Nowadays, there are many public housing estate are out of the current standard and outmoded owing to the time is elapse. So, Hong Kong Housing Authority launches the Comprehensive Redevelopment Programme to make an improvement of living quality to the tenant that living in old public housing estate, there are 566 target block about 231,403 flats which was built before 1973 are demolished and the Comprehensive Redevelopment Programme was completed in January 2010. Otherwise, the Housing Authority carry out the Total Maintenance Scheme in 2006 approximately covering 600,000 flats, the Housing Authority article showing that the main concept of this scheme is Proactive and comprehensive approach to identify maintenance problems, then Prompt response to emergencies and tenants requests, finally, Enhanced promotional and educational programmes to improve the maintenance quality and service in public housing estate and enhance the quality of living environment to the tenant. At this moment in this time, Hong Kong Housing Authority had made two different programme which are maintenance and redevelopment in different period to enhance the living quality of public housing estate. Building maintenance is a method to sustainable of keeping and enhances the function of facilities of aged public housing. Redevelopment is a method that demolish the outmoded building and redevelopment, it is very complicated, because there are many factors are contained, (e.g. psychology affect of tenant, use of time, cost of finance, availability of the land). For this reason, the purpose of this study is research the benefit and disadvantage of maintenance and redevelopment of aged public housing, express the different and difficulties to precede the redevelopment and maintenance and bring up my recommendation that base on the opinion of public and the feasibility study on the actually condition for the future building management for Hong Kong, . Introduction In this study, I will first provide some background information of aged public housing in Hong Kong. Then, I will present a clear conceptual background of maintenance and redevelopment, such as the definition of maintenance and redevelopment, and critically review the condition of aged public housing in Hong Kong. Then, I will evaluate and examine the intention of government policy for choice between maintenance and redevelopment of aged public housing, in order to make the best decision between adoption of maintenance and redevelopment of aged public housing in Hong Kong. In addition, I will outline and discuss the factors contributing to the decision. Besides, I will mainly focus on three factors, economic, environment and structural safety. And, I will then outline the advantages and disadvantages of maintenance and redevelopment, which can affect the decision between adoption of maintenance and redevelopment of aged public housing. Finally, I will summarize the factors which can affect the decision making and provide some recommendations for the future decision making and redevelopment for public housing estate. Aims and Objective The aim of this dissertation is to review and evaluate the decision for the old public building between maintenance and redevelopment of Hong Kong. Objective: A historical review the background of public housing in Hong Kong. A literature reviews the definition of maintenance and redevelopment and compares the factor which determines the decision between redevelopment and maintenance. Carry out research and interview with selected target building and group. Selection of public building for case study. A critical data analysis and information based on the conclusion drawn from all review and research. Conclusion and recommendation based on the critical analysis and result of the research. History of public housing in Hong Kong The appearance of public housing in Hong Kong mainly due to the fire in Shek Kip Mei on 25 December 1953, the fire destroyed the makeshift homes of refugees from Mainland China, leaving 53,000 people homeless. After the fire, and facing a surge of immigrant population, then the government launched a public housing program to introduce the idea of multi story building for the immigrant population living there, thus commencing a programme of mass public housing, providing affordable homes for those on low incomes. Some scholars have argued that the government has been overstating the role of the fire in the history of public housing in Hong Kong. Nowadays, public housing facility is the weightiest position of the society. Public housing estate major provided a home for peoples who cant afford the private accommodation in real need, because the rates of public housing are really lower than private housing. At present, there are 169 public housing estate (about 656,000 public rental flats and residence around 2.2 million people) under the Housing Authoritys (HA) management scope. Research methodology and significant of study Research is a process, which is the way to get the answer and question to hypothesis in different way of this study and support the conclusion from information of the research. Furthermore, methodology is use for prove the truth of the assumption, the methodology that is choose from literature review (e.g. news, article, journal, book) and investigation for target person (e.g. group interview, individual interview, questionnaire). Chapter outline Chapter one is the Introduction of this study, in this part, the history of Honk Kong public housing estate is introduced first, then define the main focus of this study clearly and explain the source of information about this study. Therefore, a clear concept of this study provided for the reader from this chapter. Chapter two is the Literature Review, in this chapter, the definition and characteristic of maintenance and redevelopment are identify by literature or article or journal, after that, the factor of influence that between maintenance and redevelopment is recognize base on the concept findings of maintenance and redevelopment, the important information from the article or journal are recap and compare the data on the most relevant. Chapter Three is the Methodology, in this part is to make a critical review on the decision for the old public building between maintenance and redevelopment of Hong Kong. The methodology consists of a literature review, followed by questionnaire survey and the subsequent interview. The conclusion from the analysis of the results of questionnaire and interview surveys would be served as a ground for formulating the recommendations. Chapter Four is the Findings and Data Analysis, in this part all information and data that collected would be organized in this chapter and detailed discussion and analysis would be presented from the interview and the questionnaire. Chapter Five is the Conclusion and Recommendations, in this chapter, final conclusion and recommendations will be made based on the discussion, collected information and analysis made in Chapter three and four. Literature review Definition of Maintenance According to British Standard 8210 defined maintenance as the combination of all technical and administrative action intended to retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform its required function. And the previous version of British Standard (BS 3811: 1964) stated that maintenance as a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item, or restore it to, an acceptable condition. There are few components are identified from the above definition. According to the British Standard stated that Action not only related to the physical execution of maintenance work, also concerned with its initiation, financing and organization. The notion of an acceptable condition, which implies and understanding of the requirement for the effective usage of the building and its parts, which in turn compels broader consideration of building performance, Chartered of Institute of Building offer the followings definition of maintenance: Works undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve every facility, e.g. every part of building, its services and surrounds, to an agreed standard, determined by the balance between need and available resources. The committee on Building Maintenance recommended the adoption of the followings: Definition of maintenance: Work undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve every facility e.g. every part of building, its services and surrounds to a currently acceptable standard and to sustain the utility and value of the facility. Proper maintenance can extend the useful life of a building substantially. Renovation of old buildings is sometimes a viable alternative to redevelopment as it causes much less disruption to the affected residents. It can also improve the environment and reduce the need for urban renewal from the Planning environment and Lands Branch, 1996 British standard (BS 3811: 1984) classified maintenance as three parts as follow, i. Planned maintenance; described as organized maintenance and carried out with forethought, control, and the use of records to predetermined plan. ii. Preventive maintenance, it is carried out at predetermined or to other prescribed criteria and intended to reduce the likelihood of an item not meeting an acceptable condition. iii. Running maintenance, which can be carried out whilst an item is in service. Definition of Redevelopment Redevelopment means that the society shall demolish and redevelop the old dilapidated building with poor living condition into a productive and desirable use in order to utilize the land resources. Hong Kong Housing Authority described that the redevelopment and clearance aims to improve the living standard for residents in older estates and to ensure that facilities and benefits do not lag too far behind the newer estates. The opinion focuses on demolishing old and dilapidated buildings which providing poor living conditions and improving living conditions by assembling large pieces of land for comprehensive planning and the restructuring of the community through providing better and appropriate community facilities and open space. (P.K. Kam 2002) Housing Authority stated that the land use within the community, new opportunities may be identified which may lead to better planning and development within the district, including opportunities for housing. (HKHA) Redevelopment as an effective means to comprehensively revamp an old area by upgrading the street design and the community amenities as well as to better utilize the in shortage supply of land resources. (Urban Renewal Authority) Comprehensive housing renewal can provide greater open space and community facilities. Typical objective include: suitable re-housing; increased amenities; community preservation architectural conservation and fiscal outcomes, among others that base on Couch 1990, Rapkin 1980 Factors which Determining the Decision between Redevelopment and Maintenance The reason for redevelopment mainly as the following: Replacement of whole elements of components When the whole elements of components are functionally unsatisfactory; incur high maintenance or running costs and aesthetically unacceptable (Lee Maintenance Management), the components will be redeveloped. 2. Design constraints, lack of amenities Since, the publics expectation for improving the standard of living environment is rising. A redeveloped component will provide a better living environment to the residents. Areas concern such as to improve the condition, value and life span of public housing assets, enhance local communities and support the local construction industry. 3. Maximize the usage of land Redevelop a component not only can increase the efficiency of land usage, but also provide a better integration of transportation and commercial facilities and the provision of new district facilities. 4. Change of plot ratio Plot ratio control was under the Building Ordinance is a device used by planning authorities, to restrict the amount of floor space provided in new building in relation to their site area. The population grows at (the rate of population growth is roughly one million per decade in Hong Kong) roughly a million every decade in Hong Kong. With limited land resources, further increase in density in high of housing development is inevitable. In addition, provide more occupancy ratio, the occupancy ratio of 2.23sq m per person that had been established in the 1950s and changed over time to 4.25sq m per person in the 1980s, up to date, the current occupancy ratio stands at 7 sq m per person. Economy The large assembly of land through the Comprehensive Development Area (CDA) comcept has two major benefits from the planners point of view, Booth (1996) and Listokin (1974); Waver and Blabcock (1979); all cited by Tse (2001) The CDA sites can achieve the maximum plot ratio; It can achieve a better designed layout and block disposition and provide adequate communal facilities for the development. structural and building safety American Planning Association elaborated that the building in which it is unsafe for persons and unhealthy to live or work due to dilapidation; deterioration; defective design or physical construction; inadequate utilities; lack of ventilation, light or sanitary facilities contamination by hazardous substances and redevelopment might be considered. The reasons for maintenance mainly as the following: 1. Environmental impact Environmental impacts arising from the demolition, construction and operation of the redevelopment project and related activities, therefore the environmental impact of maintenance works are much better to avoid and minimize the potential environmental impacts to the public. 2. Long time for the completion of new estates The total lead-time for the completion of new estates is about 4 years including: planning, design, tendering and construction. 3. Lower operation and maintenance cost in the long run Preventive maintenance concept has developed in Housing Authority. In view of the fact that regular repair and maintenance cannot fundamentally solve the problems arising from ageing, such as water seepage in the balcony, rusting of water pipes, wear and tear of concrete, etc. the Housing Department is exploring ways to upgrade or maintain aged estates comprehensively in order to improve tenants living environment Building rehabilitation is one of the options being explored in dealing with aged estates. 4. High construction costs are not cost-effective Tight budget of Housing Authority incurring such high construction costs is not cost-effective and will also affect the environment during construction stage. Advantages of redevelopment There are several benefits for the Housing Authority during redevelopment First of all, the rationalization of land use and the opportunity for increasing housing production, particularly for Housing Authority redevelopment site where boundaries may be modified to optimize development intensity. The ability to bring in other resources to facilitate redevelopment of existing public housing estates, including the private sector and other quasi-government agencies. This could enable some older estates to be redeveloped for higher and more productive uses that would otherwise remain for a long time due to a lack of suitable reception housing. One of the benefits is that the improvement to the physical conditions of the area that would benefit existing public housing residents and at the sme time enhances the attractiveness and desirability of Housing Authority developments. Besides, the grater diversity of land use and type of developments will assist in improving the secio-economic mix in the area and provide housing residents with more choices and housing opportunities. Furthermore, construction jobs created by the development of new buildings and new infrastructure and the remodeling in existing buildings Redeveloping building can stop the spread of deterioration and blight of aging building and improving the safety and environment of adjacent areas Deficiencies of redevelopment Governments redevelopment programs have the following deficiencies: Migration of vast number of people is a complicated process requiring detailed planning, monitoring and documentation. A high percentage (up to 40%) of Hong Kong population is housed in Public Housing Estates. An extensive re-housing and redevelopment program is required, which exerts heavy pressure on manpower, time and money. Demolition of a building is a costly process. Moreover it creates construction waste undesitably unavoidably. The waste, if unsuitably reused, can result in pollution of the environment and depletion of resources. Also noise and visual pollutions can become nuisances to nearby residents. New estate designs are often based on economic values. Also, cost efficiency and high practicality had been the approach adopted in the new developments, lacking in the encouragement of communal interactions. The new estates have more monotonous and self-enclosed living environment. Significances and Advantages of Maintenance According to David Highfield (2000) defined that the cost of refurbishing and re-using and existing building is generally considerably less than the cost of demolition and new construction since many of the building elements are already constructed. One of the principles advantages of opting of refurbishment and re-use of existing building rather than demolition and construction is that, in he majority of cases. The renewed or redeveloped accommodations will be available in a much shorter time. And the shorter contract duration reduces the effects of inflation on building costs, also the overall development period could be shorter and reduces the cost of financing the scheme The work required refurbishing and existing building would normally take considerably less time than the alternative if demolition, site clearance and the construction of a new building. Time savings, during the pre-contract design, planning permission and building works phases of development. The client obtains the building sooner and therefore begins the earn reveue from it (e.g. rentals, retail sales of manufacturing profits) at an earlier date. With the increasing cost of new-build work, effective maintenance of existing building stock is become more important and building maintenance now represents a significant proportion of construction output. About unstable supply of construction works, according to Patricia Hillebrandt (2000) stated that the determination of demand for construction activity is a very complex affair and heavily depends on the policy of government either directly through its intervention in the public sector, or through its influence on the general level of economics activity in the private sector. The standard of maintenance achieved has an important influence on the quality of the built environment and there seems little doubt that society will continue to expect higher standards in new and existing buildings. Nowadays, maintenance is a significant and important part of the work of the constrctuion industry. The environmental advantages, one of the many ways in which energy consumption can be reduced is to recycle and re-use exising resouces as much as possible, in preference to consuming even more energy by replacing them. E.g. when major alterations are made, will generally use less energy than demolition and new build. Housing Authority stressed that maintenance can facilitate early defect deteration and rectifection. This canavoid the additional expenses arising from further deterioration and it enables building elemets and services installations to be replaced at the optimum time in order to achieve the maximum serviceable life (Press Release: Home CARE Maintenance for Public Housing Estate, 1 March,2001) Disadvantage of Maintenance Although maintenance is beneficial to the aged building and many articles are supporting this view, but there are no perfect views of any matter, so in this part, the disadvantage of maintenance is shown as the follows: The resultant standard of living may not live up to contemporary expectations. Very limited potential for positive impact with regard to lad use and building performance. The current mismatch in housing type supply and demand and the general inefficient layout of the site would remain. This approach dose not count for the relatively short life span of the existing housing. Deterioration and Obsolescence The life cycle analysis by Flanagan (1989), which includes the following items: Physical deterioration; economic obsolescence; functional obsolescence; technological obsolescence; social obsolescence; location obsolescence; legal obsolescence; aesthetic and visual obsolescence; image obsolescence; and environmental obsolescence. Base on Aikivuori (1995) asserts that the defects of building are relative, not absolute and therefore difficult to measure objectively. The replacement due to obsolescence is not technically rational since it does not optimize the use of structures until the end of their durability. Since corrective replacement is defined as the project aimed at deteriorated structures in unacceptable physical condition. According to Taylor (1980) proposes that deterioration has no part in the accumulated inferiority caused by obsolescence and the deterioration and obsolescence are 2 separable issues. Both Taylor (1980) have categorized the causes of replacement into these 2 classes, e.g. deterioration and obsolescence. Thus, Aikivuori (1995) view the reasons for the decision to initiate a redevelopment project as a basis of the demand. The phenomena causing redevelopment are classified into 5 categories in his study as follows: failure in the building due to deterioration: change in use: optimization of economic factors: subject features of the decision maker: and the change of circumstances. Life Span of Building Components Base on the main theme of this study, the life span of building components is a very critical part to provide the sustainable development environment and enhance the value and practicability of the aged building. Also, it is a critical part to affect the decision between maintenance and redevelopment, so the building components should be coordinate with the methodology to present result that meet the international standard, the methodology is really simple to included multifarious application and give a suitable advice of the analysis or review for different type of building in Hong Kong or other country. According to the related RICS journals Assessing the Life Expectancies of Building for Life Cycle Costing by Ashworth (1996) bring up the idea is about the rate of depreciation of building components depend on different information or data supporting and the selection of relevant life span reviews. Base on the theory from this journal, the expectancies may be uncertain, due to a proper design and maintenance arrangement or physical deterioration and obsolescence affect or the quality of refurbishment phase. Anyhow, different types or use of building have different refurbishment lives and the argument of expectancies incidence is important than overall building life span. Macdonald (2003) indentified the building requirement and intention of life is at least 50 years or above, if there is good workmanship in construction stage and arrange inspection and maintenance work on cycle. Actuality, most of the building may be demolished before the end of time and rebuild, if there is any economical profit of that place or may be change the use of building to meet the new requirement. Base on the information from RICS, the serviceable life span of aged public housing can be extending about 10-15 years, due to a systematic and cycle maintenance arrangement. Therefore, the aged public housings are structurally safe, that mean it is unnecessary to demolish and redevelopment. . The life span components of public housing estates as follow: Building Components Life Span (year) Window glazing 20 Plumbing 25-30 External wall tile 20-25 Vinyl sheet or tile 20-30 External paint 5-10 Internal wall paint 5-10 Waterproofing, bituminous coating 10 Wooden door 20-30 Hence, there are many factors affecting the life expectancy of building components and need to be considered when making replacement decisions, including the quality of the components, the quality of the installation, level of the maintenance, weather and climatic conditions and intensity of their use. Some components remain functional but become obsolete because of changing styles and styles and taste or because of product improvement. RICS defined that the building structure may be designed using materials, components and technology that may last for about 100 years or more, depending on the quality and standards expected from users. Methodology Research aim This research aims is to evaluate and critical review on the factor contributing to the decision between the adoption of maintenance and redevelopment of aged public housing estate in Hong Kong with determine the decision between maintenance and redevelopment in public housing estate from the questionnaire and interview and technical record of the building structure life span. The methodology consists of literature research, survey through questionnaires and interviews and reviews the opinion of tenant and government. With a view to do this, I will use the questionnaire and case study in the dissertation respectively. As a new research area, the researcher adopted a multi-faceted approach employing multiple methods for the collection of research materials. There are several methods to do the research. The first method is to visit relevant government departments and officials in order to have a deep understanding to the research. The second method is that, by reviewing some electronic and printed documents as well as participant observations in order to have an up-dated and comprehensive understanding of the issues. The main methodologies used for the dissertation are documentary review on relevant public housing policies particularly on the Comprehensive Redevelopment Programme (CPR) and Home CARE Maintenance in both printed and electronic form has been conducted. Besides, case study is used to examine the intention of government policy for redevelopment and maintenance for old public housing estate. The reasons for choosing the above case study for this dissertation can be specifically elaborated into 2 aspects: financial and environment impacts between redevelopment and maintenance that take place in public housing estates. Furthermore, questionnaires were also used to serve the purpose of providing a through understanding of the old public housing estates physical environment, where the tenants live and socialize and their true-wish or desires on maintenance and redevelopment. Research the existing old public housing estate in Hong Kong In 2010, the public housing estate in Hong Kong which is less than 30 years old nearly 87% and about 13% estates were built before 1980. The most common aged public housing estate is Choi Hung Estate, Kwai Shing Estate, Lai King Estate, which is over 35 years old. With a view to maintain the housing standards, public housing estates which are 30 years old or above are require upgrading by improvement measures or facilities. However, some other 30 plus years old public housing estates require to have redevelopment, because its structure is not fulfill the safe standard or becoming uneconomical to take maintenance. For the reason that the oldest block design Mark I to Mark VI public housing estates and the former government low cost housing estates built in the 1950s and 1960s are obsolete by todays standards, the above block designs were cleared for redevelopment in June 1999. The Government started to redevelop these buildings in the 1970s. Up to 31 December 2004, 694 blocks of these estates containing some 249,360 households were redeveloped. Review of building conditions in public housing in Hong Kong In this section, I will present an overview of the current status of old public housing estates in Hong Kong. In Hong Kong, the remaining early authority estates included, Shek Kip Mei Estate, Fuk Loi Estate, Choi Hung Estate. Although the living environment basically can meet the normal standards, it is not a fine condition in comparing with the public housing estate which built after 70s. In the 1960s, there were some marginal improvement for the public housing design. The improvements not only increase a little more living space in the public housing units, but also the community facilities were significantly improved. Besides, the building block is bigger than before, the stories were increased to 16 and corridors were moved indoors, but neighborliness was discouraged by the long monstrous slab blocks. Nowadays, all units in the ageing public housing estates are self-contained with basic facilities such as shower tray and water closet in the toilet, cooking bench and sink in the kitchen, drying rack, electricity, not and cold water supplies etc. In order to upgrade the facilities, a more energy-saving lift system will be introduced. Also, a security system will be installed in all rental blocks, which includes electronically controlled security gates and door phones for each unit and television surveillance system in common areas from the security counter next to the main entrance on ground floor. Questionnaires Survey In this questionnaire, there are 10 questions to collect tenant opinion on this topic of Choi Hung Estate and Lai King Estate, also, it can collect more basic information of the selected estate In order to ensure accuracy in the collected data by all interviewers, structured questionnaires was adopted in which similar ques

Working With Special Populations

Working With Special Populations Spirduso et al. (2005) gives the definition of ageing as ‘ A process or group of processes occurring in living organisms that begins with birth and, with the passage of time, leads to a loss of adaptability, functional impairment and eventually death. Also Swain and Leutholtz (2002) define aging as a result in years of physical inactivity, and that much to do with the biological consequences of age is the sedentary lifestyles most aging people have. Those who remain physically active throughout life demonstrate much slower rates of physical decline than do the sedentary, and a growing body of research indicates that those who have been sedentary for many years can experience significant improvements by beginning an exercise programme even at very advanced ages (Fiatrone et al. 1990). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there is over 20 percent of the population in the United Kingdom over the age of 65 and by the year 2025 there is an overall projection that, that value will rise to almost as much as 30% of the population living in the united Kingdom to be over the age of 65 (Mcardle, Katch and Katch 2010). Research shows that when properly prescribed exercise, elderly people can significantly improve their aerobic power (Eshani 1987), muscular strength and size (Fiatrone et al. 1990; Frontera et al. 1988), and bone density (Dalsky 1989). Improvements in functional movements such as walking speed and stair climbing power have also been reported (Fiatrone et al. 1990). These results can reverse the effects of many years of physical decline and lead to greater independence and a much higher quality of life. More than half of elderly people have at least one disability or chronic condition, participation in a regular physical activity/exercise programme has many physiological health benefits including reducing the risk and lessening the impact of many chronic diseases (DiPietro, Caspersen and Ostfield 1995). Aging has numerous effects on organ systems in the body, effecting skeletal muscle, body composition, the cardiovascular system, the metabolic system, the respiratory system, the nervous system, energy expenditure and energy intake and also thermoregulation. These can all seem to be contraindications for exercising when elderly such as thermoregulation being affected this means there is a decreased ability to regulate body temperature when homeostasis is challenged; decreased amount of sweat per active sweat gland; reduced response to increased blood flow during exercise attributable to structure and response of cutenous blood vessels; inadequate ability to reduce splanchnic blood flow during exercise (Kenney 1997 and King, Martin 1998). In general, if an individual leads an active lifestyle it preserves and enhances skeletal muscle, strength and endurance, flexibility, cardio respiratory fitness and body composition for later life. Main Content Physiological Factors Cardiovascular Fitness + Training Since many elderly individuals have a low initial fitness level, it is prudent to begin exercise programmes at a low intensity and to progress gradually (Swain and Leutholtz 2002). Low cardiorespiratory fitness is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and all cause mortality (Blazer 1982). Low VO2 peak is associated with reduced ability to perform ADLs (activities of daily living) including climbing stairs and brisk walking (Birdt 1998). A small improvement in cardiovascular fitness is associated with lower risk of death. Healthy sedentary older men and women can increase their cardiorespiratory fitness by performing aerobic exercise training (Engels et al. 1998: Kuczmarski et al. 1994). Physical activities that the elderly population, should engage in are walking (indoors, outdoors, or treadmill), gardening, swimming (water aerobics), golf and cycling (White 1995). Combining strength with endurance training is also beneficial for the elderly individual. One study showed that after 6 months of combined resistance and endurance training, older healthy individuals increased their VO2 peak (11%) and their upper and lower body strength (Blazer 1982). The ability to carry out normal daily task such as carrying laundry, vacuuming and climbing stairs translated to carrying 14% more weight and moving 10% faster. Resistance Training Elderly individuals, including the oldest old and very frail elderly, demonstrate physiological adaptations to strength training (Kuczmarski et al. 1994). How much adaptation depends on the frequency, volume, mode, type of training and initial training state (Ferketich, Kirby and Alway 1998). Strength training has the potential to improve functional capacity and quality of life of the elderly person (Fiatrone et al. 1990). Most elderly individuals can participate in a resistance training programme that is individually designed. Those with hypertension or arthritis or at risk of osteoporotic fracture need to be assessed and evaluated by a physician prior to initiating resistance training programme (White 1995). A ACSM recommendation for the elderly that bears some scrutiny is the recommendation to use machines as apposed to free weights. Swain and Leutholtz (2002) evaluates that although it is true that machines require less skill, free weights have the advantage of teaching balance and greater neuromuscular control, which may be transferrable to real world activities. Furthermore they also talk about free weights being more superior by allowing the user to add small amount of weight onto their dumbbells i.e. 1kg whereas resistance machines normally have increments of 4.5kg or more which is a large leap when the user is frail, on the other hand ACSM realise that machines require less balance requirements and the risk of injury. Resistance training programmes lasting from 8 weeks to 1 year can increase muscle strength and mass in elderly, regardless of age and sex (Fiatrone et al. 1990). Psychological + Sociological Factors International Society of Sport Psychology (1992) states that â€Å"Individual psychological benefits of physical activity include: positive changes in self perceptions and well-being, improvement in self-confidence and awareness, positive changes in mood, relief of tension, relief of feelings such as depression and anxiety, influence on premenstrual tension, increased mental well-being, increased alertness and clear thinking, increased energy and ability to cope with daily activity, increased enjoyment of exercise and social contacts, and development of positive coping strategies.† Many older individuals do not have a spouse, close children or friends to rely on for socialization, assistance and support (Evans 1999). Although with age, social relationships may change from family to more formalized organizations or nonfamily members, many elderly live in social isolation and are very lonely. This is important because epidemiological studies have demonstrated a relationship between social support and physical health (Evans 1999). To add on to this it has been show that in several studies, lack of social support is a major risk factor for depression, morbidity and mortality (Engels et al. 1998). Participation in an organized training session provides an excellent opportunity for interaction between other elderly people and when organising a session it is been seen to do all activities as in one whole group to get a more major interaction between participants (Evans 1999). Also another method which could be used to improve social interaction for the elderly participating in a exercise program could include a ‘buddy exercise system where individuals are matched up with similar ability to perform their exercises together. Exercise Recommendations Physical activity recommendations for the elderly are updated regularly by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM 2000). High intensity activities such as running, rowing, aerobic/gravity riders, and stair steppers may not be appropriate unless the individual has a rare high fitness level. Low to moderate intensity exercise programmes can be performed daily. Higher intensity exercise sessions (>70% heart rate reserve) should only be performed 3 to 5 days per week (ACSM 2000). This allows for recovery days, which are more important for the older adult than the younger person as elders recover slower. Older individuals with a low exercise capacity may benefit from multiple daily sessions of short duration, whereas the more capable individual can benefit from three sessions per week with exercise bouts performed once per day (ACSM 2000). Elderly individuals who are unable to perform ambulatory activities may be candidates to perform seated chair activities, stationary cycling and water activities. T ai chi is seen to be one of the best activities for elderly individuals to undertake as it improves strength and balance according to Dalsky (1989). For the healthy older individual, it is recommended that exercise be performed minimally for 30 minutes but not beyond an hour in duration. If an individual beginning an exercise programme is predominately sedentary, has severe chronic disease, or has a very low fitness level, a minimum of 30minutes of continuous activity may not be possible. Sessions of as little as 10 minutes two or three times a day is appropriate in this situation. Health benefits are still obtained this way (ACSM 2000). National and Regional Strategies Summary Physical activity of light to moderate intensity helps to improve health, whereas moderate to high intensity physical activity with an emphasis on aerobic endurance improves cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2) as well as health in older individuals. Elderly individuals demonstrate improvements during resistance training by increasing muscle mass and strength; this improves gait, balance, and overall functional capacity and bone health this staving off chronic diseases such as osteoporosis and improve overall quality of life. There are also psychological benefits associated with regular physical activity and exercise. Dr. Robert Butler, former director of the National Institute of Aging states ‘If exercise could be put in a bottle, it would be the strongest medicine money could buy In general the elderly person can improve physical and mental health by performing regular physical activity, and this should be encouraged by all medical and exercise professionals. Ultimately, regardless of age or level of frailty, nearly all elderly persons can derive some physiologic, functional or quality of life benefit from initiating an exercise programme. Training Sessions Mode Frequancy Itenisity Duration Special Considerations Aerobic Training Intensity Load Reference Page American College of Sports Medicine. (2000) ACSMs Guidlines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 6th Edition. Baltimore: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins. Birdt, T.A. (1998) Alzheimers disease and other primary dementia. In Harrisons principles of internal medicine. New York: McGraw and Hill; pp. 2348-2356. Blazer, D.G. (1982) Social support and mortality in an elderly community population. American Journal of Epidemiology; 115:684-694. Dalsky, G.P. (1989) The role of exercise in the prevention of osteoporosis. Comprehensive Therapy. 15(9):30-37. DiPietro L, Caspersen C.J., Ostfield A.M. (1995) A survey for assessing physical activity among older adults. Medical Science Sports and Exercise; 25: 628-642. 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(1988) Strength conditioning in older men: Skeletal muscle hypertrophy and improved function. Journal of Applied Physiology, 64:1038-1044. International Society of Sport Psychology (1992). Physical activity and psychological benefits: International Society of Sport Psychology Position Statement. The Physician and Sports medicine, 20(10), 179-184. Keen, W.L. (1993) The older Athlete: Exercise in hot environments. Sports Science Exchange 6:44. King, A.C. and Martin, J.E. (1998) Physical Activity promotion: Adoption and Maintenance. American College of Sports Medicines Research Manual for Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins pp 564-569. Knutzen, K.M., Brilla, L.R. and Caine, D. (1999) Validity of 1RM prediction equations for older adults. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 13, 242-246. Kuczmarski, R.J., Flegal, K.M., Campbell, S.M., Johnson, C.L. (1994) Increasing prevalence of overweight among U.S. adults. Journal of American Medical Association; 272:205-211. McArdle, W.D., Katch, F.I. and Katch V.I. (2010) Exercise Physiology: Nutrition, Energy and Human Performance. 7th Edition. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Seguin, R. and Nelson, M.E. (2003) The benefits of strength training for older adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 25 (Suppl. 2), 141-149. Spirduso WW, Francis KL, MacRae PG (2005). Physical Dimensions of Ageing (2nd ed). Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, pp. 131-55. Swain, D.P and Leutholtz, B.C. (2002) Exercise Prescription: A case study approach to the ACSM Guidelines. Champaign: Human Kinetics. White, T.P. (1995) Skeletel muscle structure and function in older mammals. In Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine. Carmel: Cooper; pp.115-174.